École thématique du GDR DEMIPS, CNRS
Autrans 4-7 avril 2022
| En hommage à Gérard Vergnaud (1933-2021) |
École thématique du GDR DEMIPS, CNRS
Autrans 4-7 avril 2022
| En hommage à Gérard Vergnaud (1933-2021) |
L'exposé comprendra trois parties : (1) la problématique du modèle cKȼ dans le cadre de la théorie des situations didactiques et de la théorie des champs conceptuels, (2) la caractérisation des conception en insistant sur la notion de contrôle et la notion de µ-objet, (3) son potentiel pour analyser la complexité épistémique des mathématiques en revenant notamment sur la notion d’unité cognitive dans la résolution de problème proposée par Garuti, Boero et Lemut, et la caractérisation de théorème par Mariotti.
Abstract
Early learning of mathematics is first rooted in pragmatic evidences or learners’ confidence in the facts and procedures taught. Nonetheless, learners develop a true knowledge which works as a tool in significant problem situations, and which is accessible to falsification and argumentation. As teachers know, they could validate what they claim to be true, but based on means in general not conforming to mathematical standards. Teaching these standards requires an evolution of their understanding of what can count as a proof in the mathematical classroom, as well as an evolution of their mathematical knowing. This claim is discussed from the perspective of modelling the learners ways of knowing (the model cK¢), within the framework of the theory of didactical situations, bridging the semiotic system they use, the type of actions they perform and the controls they implement either to construct or to validate the solutions they propose to a problem.
Balacheff N. (2019) Contrôle, preuve et démonstration. Trois régimes de la validation. In: Pilet J., Vendeira C. (eds.) Actes du séminaire national de didactique des mathématiques 2018 (pp.423-456). Paris : ARDM et IREM de Paris - Université de Paris Diderot.texte accessible en ligne [ici]
Brousseau G. (2000) Que peut-on enseigner en mathématiques à l'école primaire et pourquoi ? Repères IREM 7-10, n° 38 Topiques éditions.
Duval R. (1992) Argumenter,démontrer, expliquer. Continuité ou rupture cognitive ? Petit X, 31 pp. 37-61.DGESco (2008) Raisonnement et démonstration. Ressources pour les classes de 6e, 5e, 4e, et 3e du collège. EduSCOL. Paris : Ministère de l’éducation nationale.DGESco (2016) Raisonner. Ressources d'accompagnement du programme de mathématiques (cycle 4). Eduscol. Paris : Ministère de l’éducation nationale, de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche.
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| ARDM |
"En tant qu'entité matérielle sur un support, le dessin peut être considéré comme un signifiant d'un référent théorique (objet d'une théorie géométrique comme celle de la géométrie euclidienne, ou de la géométrie projective). La figure géométrique consiste en l'appariement d'un référent donné à tous ses dessins, elle est alors définie comme l'ensemble des couples formés des deux termes, le premier terme étant le référent, le deuxième étant l'un des dessins qui le représente ; le deuxième terme est pris dans l'univers de tous les dessins possibles du référent. Le terme figure géométrique renvoie dans cette acception à l'établissement d'une relation entre un objet géométrique et ses représentations possibles." (Laborde et Capponi 1994 pp.168-169)En somme, et c'est là tout l'intérêt de cette idée, la figure est une classe d'équivalence de dessins à laquelle on accèdera par l'un de ses (bons) représentants comme cela se fait classiquement en mathématique. Encore faudra-t-il ne pas confondre la classe et son représentant, ce à quoi on sait bien que nos étudiants sont prompts. Mais, le vrai problème est ailleurs, dans la dernière phrase de la citation précédente et le renvoie, un peu avant, au "référent donné". Quel est ce référent ? Il s'agit, bien sûr, de l'objet géométrique qui a justement bien du mal à s'imposer comme référent parce que, sujet de l'idéalité mathématique, il échappe largement aux tentatives de matérialisation. De plus, invoquer la classe de tous les dessins ne résout pas le problème car cette classe est par nature indéfinie et potentiellement infinie.
"l'objet n'est [...] rien d'autre ni rien de plus que l'invariant, ou le support, d'un système d'opérations. Degré zéro du contenu, cet invariant n'est pas décrit : il n'apparait pour ainsi dire que comme un creux, si l'on tente en vain de le détacher du système opératoire." (Granger 1994 p.41)Ce que nous pourrions reformuler en disant que l'objet géométrique est un référent abstrait (idée, signifié) dont la nature est sans cesse saisie et questionnée par l'ensemble des représentations qui lui sont associées et des actions (système opératoire) mises en œuvres sur ces représentations lors de la résolution de problèmes ou l'accomplissement de tâches l'invoquant. Nous n'avons de l'objet géométrique qu'une conception caractérisée par la donnée simultanée et reliée des systèmes de représentation, des ensembles d'actions et des problèmes qui l'invoquent. On reconnait là la caractérisation d'un concept de Gérard Vergnaud. Pour ce qui est des solutions proposées initialement par Parzysz, Laborde et Capponi, on peut remarquer que le texte descriptif associé à un objet géométrique est la meilleure caractérisation dont on dispose de la classe des dessins (matériels) qui lui seraient associés. Ces deux caractérisations peuvent donc être rapprochées, ce que nous proposons de faire en les complétant par celles des problèmes dans lesquels les représentations et les actions correspondantes sont opératoires et valides. Le cadre de modélisation cK¢ peut contribuer à mettre en forme cette solution et à la rendre opérationnelle pour fournir des outils pour la conception de situations d'apprentissage en géométrie.
4. Is the cK¢ a model of learning processes or learning states?The answer is very simple: cK¢ provides a framework for modeling learning states. Indeed learning processes are of a paramount importance, but they are in my opinion more an object of study for psychology than for mathematics education. Indeed, I don't confuse "learning processes" which are of a mental and intellectual nature, and "problem solving processes" which correspond (to make it simple) to the activity the learner engage when he or she has to solve a problem in a given situation. We need to understand and model these processes, but even if they may inform us about learning processes they are only a dimension of them.
5. Is the cK¢ a model of a learner (period), a model of a learner learning mathematics, or a model of a learner in a mathematics classroom setting?cK¢ provides a framework to model learners' understanding (learning states, as just said) in mathematics from a situated perspective; situations may be set up within a classroom or in an other context. Actually, the objective is slightly larger, I would claim that cK¢ is a framework to model mathematical understanding taking into account the situational characteristics, not being restricted to learners. A key idea when I started the project was to find a way to model mathematical conceptions with the same tools, be it they conceptions of novices or experts, wrong or correct from whatever knowledgeable perspective.
6. What exactly are the challenging aspects of modeling learning relative to modeling content and pedagogy?Anyone will expect the content to be in some sense "correct" and explicit enough to be defined precisely as a content to be taught. Still, there are challenging aspects related to its nature; for example, to model algebra or geometry from an epistemic and teaching perspective is not of the same level of difficulty.
7. What are the interdependent relationships among these three models?Indeed, as the above answers suggests it, the three models are tightly related. In particular, from an educational perspective modeling knowledge is under learning constraints because what we need is not a "knowledge model" for itself but a model of the intended learning outcomes. This knowledge (intended learning outcomes) must be learnable (accessible to learners) and teachable (manageable by teachers); actually, the objective of the didactical transposition is exactly to produce this knowledge which is always at a distance from a knowledge of reference which to some extend justify it.
8. What is the efficacy of such models if they are constructed independently from each other? In particular, can models of content and pedagogy be viable without the presence of a learning model?Be it explicitly the case or not, any pedagogical model includes a learning model; I mean a model of the (claimed) best conditions for learning.
9. Are cognitive models of thinking possible?Once we have agreed on what means "cognitive", "model" and "thinking" my answer would be: yes... but a discussion of this answer may go far beyond my field of expertise and beyond the scope of this blog as well.
"L'analyse de ces conceptions, qu'il faudra que l'élève possède ou évite, est inséparable de celle de la famille des situations spécifiques où elles prennent leur fonction et utilité. Toutes les deux sont inévitables dans toute entreprise qui prétendrait à la fois fournir une théorie dotée de ses méthodes de confrontation (probablement spécifiques aussi) et de techniques didactiques continument contrôlable par les enseignants" (Brousseau 1980 RDM 1.1 p.46)Dans le même volume (p.80) Régine Douady insiste :
"Le problème didactique est de reconnaitre et décrire, à travers les actions et démarches des enfants placés dans une situation d'apprentissage, les modèles mathématiques qui expliquent, justifient ces actions et démarches."En d'autres termes, la proposition de Douady est de produire des modèles mathématiques des conceptions dont Brousseau pose qu'elles sont indissociables des situations. Il faut entendre ici situation au sens de ce qui va, dans l'interaction entre l'élève et le milieu, être la source de problèmes mobilisateur des conceptions. Ces conceptions pouvant être, dans une perspective mathématique, erronées ou inadaptées et ce qui fait problème étant finalement largement déterminé par les conceptions initialement disponibles, la production de modèles tels qu'évoqués par Douady est un défi. C'est celui que relève la proposition de modélisation cK¢ notamment en formalisant la dualité entre problèmes et conceptions.
3. To what extent is the cK¢ a cognitive model?Actually, this question comes after a more general one: (1) "What is a cognitive model and what are its purposes?" and a more direct one (2) "Is the cK¢ a cognitive model?
cK¢ does not propose a framework to construct cognitive models. It does not pretend to model an "approximation to processes of humans’ mental activities" and do not ambition to be "capable of explaining mental processes or interactions among them", eventually it does not aim at answering a specific question such as "how do we learn to categorize perceptual objects?"Yet, cK¢ has a very strong relation to the learner by being focused on his or her interaction with a learning environment (more precisely the "milieu"). Indeed, cK¢ could contribute to a cognitive approach, but it is not its objective in the first place.
Questions Inspired by or Generated from the cK¢ Model Presentation
Guershon Harel, University of California at San Diego
I would like to thank the program committee for inviting me to react to Nicolas Balacheff’s plenary talk. I have known Nicolas for many years, both professionally and personally. I feel honored to have the opportunity to react to his work.
A fundamental human nature is that not only do humans seek to resolve puzzles, but also they seek to be puzzled. Scholarly work, thus, is judged not only by the questions it answers but also by the questions it generates. Nicolas’ paper—of which the talk you have just heard is part—does exactly that: It addresses fundamental questions about learning and thinking and at the same time generates new questions.
A strong feature of Nicolas’ work, in general, and of this paper, in particular, is its attempt to define concepts and ideas rigorously. This puts the reader in a mood to follow suit, by asking questions of rigor as well.
What I will do in the time allocated to me is to share with you some of the questions Nicolas’ paper generated for me as I tried to build a coherent image of the cKc model. It is possible that the image I constructed is entirely idiosyncratic, not coinciding with the image—or better say conception—intended by Nicolas.
Whatever the case may be, I highlight that the sole purpose of the questions I present before you now, is to generate discussions, with the hope that they would further understanding, generate research studies, and advance effective classroom implementations of the cKc model. Balacheff’s paper is about a “[cognitive] model of a learner”. The adjective “cognitive” is important here to differentiate it from other types of models. So, following the rigorous style of the paper, the first question one might ask is:
1. What is a cognitive model and what are its purposes?Briefly, and aggregately, the essential characteristics of “cognitive model”, as they appear in the literature include the following:
a. Cognitive models are approximation to processes of humans’ mental activities, such as attention, understanding, inferencing, decision making, etc.For example, the question, “What are humans’ categories of perceptual objects?” is a question about product rather than process. Likewise, the question “What are students’ proof schemes?” is a question about state, not process.
b. They are derived from basic principles of cognition, such as a particular theory of learning.
c. They are based on rigorous methods of elicitation of cognition.
d. They are capable of explaining mental processes or interactions among them.
e. They are capable of generating testable predictions, both quantitative and qualitative.
f. They are described in formal, mathematical or computer, languages.
g. They aim at answering a specific question; for example: how do we learn to categorize perceptual objects? Such as:
i. How does a student learn to categorize problems according to their mathematical structure?h. They may target cognitive processes or cognitive states.
ii. How does a child transition from additive reasoning to multiplicative reasoning?
iii. How does one learn to categorize paintings according to the periods to which they belong?
To illustrate the difference between these two types of models, I mention two examples of works many of you are familiar with. These are the seminal works of Marty Simon and Jere Confrey. What sets the research programs of Marty and Jere apart from many other works is their focus on the mechanisms that account for conceptual learning: namely, the transition from one conceptual state to another.
So relative to this background and characterizations, the questions one might ask about the cK¢ model are:
2. Is the cK¢ a cognitive model?Or less rigidly,
3. To what extent is the cK¢ a cognitive model?4. Is the cKc a model of learning processes or learning states?Furthermore, given the unique nature of the mathematics discipline among the various disciplines, and given the complexity of the classroom setting, in general, and that of mathematics classroom, in particular,
5. Is the cK¢ a model of a learner (period), a model of a learner learning mathematics, or a model of a learner in a mathematics classroom setting?As mathematics educators, we are most interested in the interactions among the three models outlined by Balacheff: the model of the learner, the model of the content to be learned, and the model of pedagogy. Nicolas indicates “For the last two [models], research has constantly been very active with some promising progress. On the contrary, modeling the learner proved to be a real challenge.” Two questions of interest, though they perhaps go beyond the scope of the paper, are:
6. What exactly are the challenging aspects of modeling learning relative to modeling content and pedagogy?A more philosophically oriented, yet critical, question is
7. What are the interdependent relationships among these three models?
8. What is the efficacy of such models if they are constructed independently from each other? In particular, can models of content and pedagogy be viable without the presence of a learning model?
9. Are cognitive models of thinking possible?This question is derived from the third characteristic of mental models I listed earlier; namely, a mental model is based on a rigorous method of elicitation of cognition. This characteristic is particularly problematic. Here is why. The cK¢ is a model of learning/thinking. As was pointed out by Colin Eden, “if we take seriously Karl Weick’s aphorism that we do not know what we think until we hear what we say, then the process of articulation—that is, the learner’s utterances and behaviors that constitute the data for the construction of the model—is a significant influence on present and future cognition. Since articulation and thinking interact, as is largely accepted, then an elicitation of cognition that depends upon articulation is always out of step with cognition before, during, and after the elicitation process.”
Even if we overcome this philosophical hurdle, an empirical question emerges:
10. To what extent can a general learning model be viable, given human diversity of character, culture, and circumstances?The fourth component of the cK¢ model is control. Balacheff characterizes control under the general umbrella of metacognitive behaviors. The control component is crucial, and is Balacheff’s significant addition to Vergnaud’s model. It is crucial because it is the place where issues of the learner’s understandings are to be revealed. The set of four examples Balacheff discusses to illustrate the cK¢ models are illuminating, but I still found myself wanting to better understand the cK¢’s definitions and treatment for crucial control constructs such as understanding, meaning, and ways of thinking.
These are crucial constructs with various instantiations. For example, when we talk about “understanding” and “meaning”, we—researchers and teachers—want and need to distinguish, for example, between “understanding in the moment” and “stable understanding”, and between “meaning in the moment” and “stable meaning”. Likewise, we want and need to observe ways of thinking, or habitual anticipations of meanings, both desirable and undesirable. Thus, it is natural to ask:
11. What are “understanding,” “meaning,” and “way of thinking” for the cKc model, and what is a reliable methodology to elicit them?12. What is “Problem” for the cK¢ model?Recall that Balacheff’s definition of “conception” is a quadruplet (P, R, L, Σ). Balacheff recognizes that the first component, Problems, is problematic; namely, he faced the question as to how to characterize the set of the problems for a particular conception. After considering two possible characterizations, one by Vergnaud and one by Brousseau, Balacheff describes P as a set of problems prototypical to the field to which the conception belongs. This characterization raises theoretical, methodological, and instructional questions.
Specifically, the cK¢ model postulates that problems are the source and the criteria of learning and knowing. And following Vergnaud and Brousseau, problems are also held as the engine of the teaching process. A consequence of these largely agreed upon positions is that the cK¢ hinges upon the school prototypical problems one chooses to elicit conceptions.
The difficulty that arises here is that many of these prototypical problems are alien, not intrinsic, to the students. The students might be able to solve them, but the kinds of perturbations they engender with the students are didactical, aimed solely at satisfying the will of the teacher. Thus:
13. If the problem is alien to the learner, what meaning can a researcher give to the operations and control components of the model?The Problem component is also a crucial factor in Balacheff’s definition of generality. Generality is one of the factors in the cK¢ model shaping relations between conceptions. As such, it is crucially important, for the simple reason that it provides a criterion for conceptual development; namely, how one conception is more general than other.
14. How is to be determined by researchers, and more importantly by teachers, whether the problem posed to elicit conception is intrinsic or alien to the learner, and how does this determination effect the observer’s conception of the learner’s conception?
Balacheff defines generality as follows:
C=(P, R, L, Σ) is more general than C’= (P’, R’, L’, Σ’) if there exists a function of representation ƒ: L’→L so that ∀p ∈P’, ƒ(p)∈P.
The examples of relative generality discussed in the paper work nicely according to this definition. Balacheff’s definition also worked well with many of the examples I tested. For some
cases, where P=P’, the definition may need further refinement. Consider the following example:
A 13-year-old girl, Tami, and an 8-year-old boy, Dan, were interviewed in pair.
Interviewer: One pound of candy cost $7. How much would 3 pounds of candy cost?
Tami: Three times seven, 21.
Dan: I agree, three times seven.
Interviewer: What if I changed the 3 into 0.31? What if the problem were: One pound of candy cost $7; how much would 0.31 of a pound cost?
Tami: The same. It is the same problem, you have just changed the number, 0.31 times 7.
Dan: No way! It isn’t the same. Can’t be [angrily]. It isn’t times. Why did you [speaking to the interviewer] agree with her?
Interviewer: I didn’t agree with her, I’m just listening to both of you. How would you solve the problem?
Dan: You take 1 and you divide by 0.31. You take that number, whatever that number is, and you divide 7 by that number.
Indeed:On the one hand, the set of problems belonging to Tami’s conception is identical to set of problems belonging to Dan’s, and it seems that there is always a translation between the corresponding L and L’ satisfying Balacheff definition of generality. Hence, the two conceptions seem to be equivalent. On the other hand, intuitively, I want to attribute a greater generality to Tami’s conception, with all the great admiration I have for Dan’s conception.
In closing,
Three of Balacheff’s goals for introducing the cK¢ can be summarized as follows:
a. Make more efficient our own research.It is against these goals that I chose the questions I have just presented.
b. Clarify concepts and their relationships.
c. Contribute to better understanding of learners’ understanding, so as to support decision making for teachers and learners.
Thank you